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	<title>Comments on: Atheism and the Burden of Proof</title>
	<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/</link>
	<description></description>
	<pubDate>Fri, 04 Jul 2008 05:29:05 +0000</pubDate>
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		<title>By: John Scott</title>
		<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-451</link>
		<dc:creator>John Scott</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Sat, 19 Jan 2008 08:16:20 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-451</guid>
		<description>&lt;blockquote&gt;No life followed by…loadsa life, suggests abiogenesis to me.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

It suggests to me that life now exists. I think it would be somewhat unfounded to assume that, since there is a rock on my carpet, that the rock came from the carpet. 

&lt;blockquote&gt;I’m not saying it happened whilst a panel of white coated experts were in attendance &lt;/blockquote&gt;

It has never happened that we know of. Attempts to recreate it have failed, and it's likelihood, empirically speaking, still stands at "zero".

&lt;blockquote&gt;that should’nt make us opt for the weak kneed solution to the life problem that “maybe someone put it there.”&lt;/blockquote&gt;

There is no proof of that, either. The problem with both the "somebody put it here" and the "life came from nothing", is that they are attempts to answer a question we do not, at this point, have an answer to. Hypotheses are fine, but when people start calling them truth then I have problems.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><p>No life followed by…loadsa life, suggests abiogenesis to me.</p></blockquote>
<p>It suggests to me that life now exists. I think it would be somewhat unfounded to assume that, since there is a rock on my carpet, that the rock came from the carpet. </p>
<blockquote><p>I’m not saying it happened whilst a panel of white coated experts were in attendance </p></blockquote>
<p>It has never happened that we know of. Attempts to recreate it have failed, and it&#8217;s likelihood, empirically speaking, still stands at &#8220;zero&#8221;.</p>
<blockquote><p>that should’nt make us opt for the weak kneed solution to the life problem that “maybe someone put it there.”</p></blockquote>
<p>There is no proof of that, either. The problem with both the &#8220;somebody put it here&#8221; and the &#8220;life came from nothing&#8221;, is that they are attempts to answer a question we do not, at this point, have an answer to. Hypotheses are fine, but when people start calling them truth then I have problems.</p>
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		<title>By: dave walker</title>
		<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-450</link>
		<dc:creator>dave walker</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Sat, 19 Jan 2008 05:52:35 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-450</guid>
		<description>No life followed by...loadsa life, suggests abiogenesis to me. That the nuts and
  bolts of the how question haven't been ironed out yet is undeniable and the
  demonstration I referred to is in the generation of us and the millions of past
  present and future species on Earth. I'm not saying it happened whilst a panel
  of white coated experts were in attendance but that should'nt make us opt for 
  the weak kneed solution to the life problem that "maybe someone put it there."
  
  Exogenesis may be a way that life spreads about the universe and a fun idea
  for science fiction based pseudo religions but doesn't explain life's origin.

  One thing's for sure, Apollo didn't initiate life on Earth. I remember an
  episode of Star Trek when the guys came across him on a distant Planet.
  He tried to dominate the crew of the Enterprise with conjuring tricks until Spock 
  and Kirk discovered his power source and destroyed it with the ships phasers. 
  He was one of the god-like aliens that dawkins hypothesises and that we may
  eventually become, future natural or human disasters permitting.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>No life followed by&#8230;loadsa life, suggests abiogenesis to me. That the nuts and<br />
  bolts of the how question haven&#8217;t been ironed out yet is undeniable and the<br />
  demonstration I referred to is in the generation of us and the millions of past<br />
  present and future species on Earth. I&#8217;m not saying it happened whilst a panel<br />
  of white coated experts were in attendance but that should&#8217;nt make us opt for<br />
  the weak kneed solution to the life problem that &#8220;maybe someone put it there.&#8221;</p>
<p>  Exogenesis may be a way that life spreads about the universe and a fun idea<br />
  for science fiction based pseudo religions but doesn&#8217;t explain life&#8217;s origin.</p>
<p>  One thing&#8217;s for sure, Apollo didn&#8217;t initiate life on Earth. I remember an<br />
  episode of Star Trek when the guys came across him on a distant Planet.<br />
  He tried to dominate the crew of the Enterprise with conjuring tricks until Spock<br />
  and Kirk discovered his power source and destroyed it with the ships phasers.<br />
  He was one of the god-like aliens that dawkins hypothesises and that we may<br />
  eventually become, future natural or human disasters permitting.</p>
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		<title>By: John Scott</title>
		<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-443</link>
		<dc:creator>John Scott</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 18 Jan 2008 14:29:52 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-443</guid>
		<description>&lt;blockquote&gt;Given that we know that the universe began in a Big Bang about 14.7 billion years ago when no organic life could have existed and the fact that life exists now, it follows logically that life must have arisen from non living material.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Given the fact that no water was in my cup, it must have condensed from thin air. 

That statement ignores the fact that we do not know how the water got there. Maybe somebody put it there. Maybe it leaked from the ceiling, maybe there is an alternative that we haven't hypothesized. 

The fact is that we don't know. 

&lt;blockquote&gt;How can you say therefore that abiogenesis is an unsupported hypothesis. Is there an alternative?&lt;/blockquote&gt;

A better question might be, is abiogenesis even possible? If it were, I'd expect it to happen more than once. 

Exogenesis is the obvious alternative. The idea that life came from other planets.  All good as far as theories go, but empirically speaking, there has to be proof that something actually occurred for it to be considered truth. 

As with the water in the glass, all one can say is that water is in the glass. We don't get to hypothesize and call it truth without evidence.

&lt;blockquote&gt;Richard Dawkins goes on to speculate that life may have appeared many times in the universe. He Isn’t stating it for a fact&lt;/blockquote&gt;

To quote Richard Dawkins:

"...here we are talking about odds of one in a billion. And yet... even with such absurdly long odds, life will still have arisen on a billion planets - of which Earth, of course, is one.
...
I do not for a moment believe the origin of life was anywhere near so improbable in practice. I think it's definitely worth spending money on trying to duplicate the event in the lab and - by the same token, on SETI, because I think it is likely that there is intelligent life elsewhere."

He goes on to describe aliens as "god-like", so, yeah, he's pretty much owned by his scientific probablism. 

&lt;blockquote&gt;We are talking about organic life, which has been demonstrated to have originated and developed in at least one place in the universe&lt;/blockquote&gt;

I don't know where you heard that. Life has never been demonstrated to have originated anywhere. The question of the origin of life is entirely a guessing game at this point, and some of the theories read more like an episode of Star Wars than science.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><p>Given that we know that the universe began in a Big Bang about 14.7 billion years ago when no organic life could have existed and the fact that life exists now, it follows logically that life must have arisen from non living material.</p></blockquote>
<p>Given the fact that no water was in my cup, it must have condensed from thin air. </p>
<p>That statement ignores the fact that we do not know how the water got there. Maybe somebody put it there. Maybe it leaked from the ceiling, maybe there is an alternative that we haven&#8217;t hypothesized. </p>
<p>The fact is that we don&#8217;t know. </p>
<blockquote><p>How can you say therefore that abiogenesis is an unsupported hypothesis. Is there an alternative?</p></blockquote>
<p>A better question might be, is abiogenesis even possible? If it were, I&#8217;d expect it to happen more than once. </p>
<p>Exogenesis is the obvious alternative. The idea that life came from other planets.  All good as far as theories go, but empirically speaking, there has to be proof that something actually occurred for it to be considered truth. </p>
<p>As with the water in the glass, all one can say is that water is in the glass. We don&#8217;t get to hypothesize and call it truth without evidence.</p>
<blockquote><p>Richard Dawkins goes on to speculate that life may have appeared many times in the universe. He Isn’t stating it for a fact</p></blockquote>
<p>To quote Richard Dawkins:</p>
<p>&#8220;&#8230;here we are talking about odds of one in a billion. And yet&#8230; even with such absurdly long odds, life will still have arisen on a billion planets - of which Earth, of course, is one.<br />
&#8230;<br />
I do not for a moment believe the origin of life was anywhere near so improbable in practice. I think it&#8217;s definitely worth spending money on trying to duplicate the event in the lab and - by the same token, on SETI, because I think it is likely that there is intelligent life elsewhere.&#8221;</p>
<p>He goes on to describe aliens as &#8220;god-like&#8221;, so, yeah, he&#8217;s pretty much owned by his scientific probablism. </p>
<blockquote><p>We are talking about organic life, which has been demonstrated to have originated and developed in at least one place in the universe</p></blockquote>
<p>I don&#8217;t know where you heard that. Life has never been demonstrated to have originated anywhere. The question of the origin of life is entirely a guessing game at this point, and some of the theories read more like an episode of Star Wars than science.</p>
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		<title>By: dave walker</title>
		<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-442</link>
		<dc:creator>dave walker</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 18 Jan 2008 13:46:10 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-442</guid>
		<description>Proving how life originated by experiment is difficult and time consuming, in 
  that you probably have to bring the ingredients together and wait a couple of 
  billion years for something to happen and let's face it, who the time. 

  Not being either present at the scene to observe the event, nor able to 
  reproduce it in a test tube might seem a big handicap but it is not enough to 
  make us doubt that abiogenesis is true. Given that we know that the universe   
  began in a Big Bang about 14.7 billion years ago when no organic life could
  have existed and the fact that life exists now, it follows logically that life must 
  have arisen from non living material.

  How can you say therefore that abiogenesis is an unsupported hypothesis. Is   
  there an alternative?
 
  Richard Dawkins goes on to speculate that life may have appeared many
  times in the universe. He Isn't stating it for a fact, but presenting one of a 
  range of possibilities, another of which is that the Earth is unique in being the 
  only life bearing world in the universe. I don't like that one as much but it could
  be true.

  The aliens are allowed, hypothetically. We are talking about organic life, which
  has been demonstrated to have originated and developed in at least one place  
  in the universe. the sky fairy is another matter. Having no empirical evidence   
  that omnipotent non biological entities can or do exist anywhere, he/she/they/it
  have to lag behind space aliens in the order of likelihood.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Proving how life originated by experiment is difficult and time consuming, in<br />
  that you probably have to bring the ingredients together and wait a couple of<br />
  billion years for something to happen and let&#8217;s face it, who the time. </p>
<p>  Not being either present at the scene to observe the event, nor able to<br />
  reproduce it in a test tube might seem a big handicap but it is not enough to<br />
  make us doubt that abiogenesis is true. Given that we know that the universe<br />
  began in a Big Bang about 14.7 billion years ago when no organic life could<br />
  have existed and the fact that life exists now, it follows logically that life must<br />
  have arisen from non living material.</p>
<p>  How can you say therefore that abiogenesis is an unsupported hypothesis. Is<br />
  there an alternative?</p>
<p>  Richard Dawkins goes on to speculate that life may have appeared many<br />
  times in the universe. He Isn&#8217;t stating it for a fact, but presenting one of a<br />
  range of possibilities, another of which is that the Earth is unique in being the<br />
  only life bearing world in the universe. I don&#8217;t like that one as much but it could<br />
  be true.</p>
<p>  The aliens are allowed, hypothetically. We are talking about organic life, which<br />
  has been demonstrated to have originated and developed in at least one place<br />
  in the universe. the sky fairy is another matter. Having no empirical evidence<br />
  that omnipotent non biological entities can or do exist anywhere, he/she/they/it<br />
  have to lag behind space aliens in the order of likelihood.</p>
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		<title>By: John Scott</title>
		<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-441</link>
		<dc:creator>John Scott</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 18 Jan 2008 13:08:38 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-441</guid>
		<description>Dave

http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/18/defining-atheism-part-two/
&#038;
http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/18/atheist-burden-of-proof-part-two/</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Dave</p>
<p><a href="http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/18/defining-atheism-part-two/">http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/18/defining-atheism-part-two/</a><br />
&#038;<br />
<a href="http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/18/atheist-burden-of-proof-part-two/">http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/18/atheist-burden-of-proof-part-two/</a></p>
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		<title>By: John Scott</title>
		<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-436</link>
		<dc:creator>John Scott</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 18 Jan 2008 01:56:36 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-436</guid>
		<description>&lt;blockquote&gt;Awaiting evidence in this case means open to new information if and when it appears. No claims, hence no burden of proof.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

I like how this. Awaiting evidence. It's a good analogy. 

So god has been accused of existing. Clearly theists accuse god of existing. They have a burden of proof. The default position is "hell, I don't know". This is the default position on any claim which we do not have ready information. 

When somebody moves from not knowing to knowing an asserting that claim of knowledge, then you get burden of proof. God exists. Oh yeah? Prove it. God doesn't exist. Really? Prove it.

I don't know = no burden of proof.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><p>Awaiting evidence in this case means open to new information if and when it appears. No claims, hence no burden of proof.</p></blockquote>
<p>I like how this. Awaiting evidence. It&#8217;s a good analogy. </p>
<p>So god has been accused of existing. Clearly theists accuse god of existing. They have a burden of proof. The default position is &#8220;hell, I don&#8217;t know&#8221;. This is the default position on any claim which we do not have ready information. </p>
<p>When somebody moves from not knowing to knowing an asserting that claim of knowledge, then you get burden of proof. God exists. Oh yeah? Prove it. God doesn&#8217;t exist. Really? Prove it.</p>
<p>I don&#8217;t know = no burden of proof.</p>
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		<title>By: John Scott</title>
		<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-435</link>
		<dc:creator>John Scott</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 18 Jan 2008 01:41:37 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-435</guid>
		<description>&lt;blockquote&gt;Richard Dawkins’ assertion of the existence of extra terrastrial intelligences greater than ours is a hypothesis, nothing more or less&lt;/blockquote&gt;

He introduces the hypothesis, assumes abiogenesis as fact although, from an empiricist point of view it cannot be considered anything but false, and then proceeds to "prove" that aliens exist using Bayesian probability. His reasoning is very clear, and he attacks alien agnosticism as unsupported by scientific probabilism. Scientific probabilism, he contends, clearly demonstrates that billions of alien-inhabited worlds exist.

And, that would be true, if abiogenesis were true. But so far it's just the best hypothesis we have, and one that has never been recreated, nor observed. Rationalism allows us to use that hypothesis, but empiricism says no.

The problem is not just starting from an unsupported hypothesis (abiogenesis); it's mainly his Bayesian probability. Probability is just that - probability. Probability means squat. Perhaps because probability uses less than all the facts in an attempt to predict the future. Or maybe because it uses numbers to create patterns that do not, in actuality, govern events. 

&lt;blockquote&gt;We know from our experience of the Earth that organic life in this universe is possible&lt;/blockquote&gt;

What do you mean by possible? That organic life can survive on earth? Or that life has arisen here?


&lt;blockquote&gt;
so taking the step of proposing that it has &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;arisen&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; elsewhere is a lot more rational than invoking the existence of some mythical sky fairy.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

I think that answers my last question. Empirically speaking, neither the sky fairy nor the aliens are allowed. We need only one case of life arising from non-life, then we can assume all the abiogenesis that we want. But until then, empiricism says no.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><p>Richard Dawkins’ assertion of the existence of extra terrastrial intelligences greater than ours is a hypothesis, nothing more or less</p></blockquote>
<p>He introduces the hypothesis, assumes abiogenesis as fact although, from an empiricist point of view it cannot be considered anything but false, and then proceeds to &#8220;prove&#8221; that aliens exist using Bayesian probability. His reasoning is very clear, and he attacks alien agnosticism as unsupported by scientific probabilism. Scientific probabilism, he contends, clearly demonstrates that billions of alien-inhabited worlds exist.</p>
<p>And, that would be true, if abiogenesis were true. But so far it&#8217;s just the best hypothesis we have, and one that has never been recreated, nor observed. Rationalism allows us to use that hypothesis, but empiricism says no.</p>
<p>The problem is not just starting from an unsupported hypothesis (abiogenesis); it&#8217;s mainly his Bayesian probability. Probability is just that - probability. Probability means squat. Perhaps because probability uses less than all the facts in an attempt to predict the future. Or maybe because it uses numbers to create patterns that do not, in actuality, govern events. </p>
<blockquote><p>We know from our experience of the Earth that organic life in this universe is possible</p></blockquote>
<p>What do you mean by possible? That organic life can survive on earth? Or that life has arisen here?</p>
<blockquote><p>
so taking the step of proposing that it has <strong><em>arisen</em></strong> elsewhere is a lot more rational than invoking the existence of some mythical sky fairy.</p></blockquote>
<p>I think that answers my last question. Empirically speaking, neither the sky fairy nor the aliens are allowed. We need only one case of life arising from non-life, then we can assume all the abiogenesis that we want. But until then, empiricism says no.</p>
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		<title>By: dave walker</title>
		<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-434</link>
		<dc:creator>dave walker</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Thu, 17 Jan 2008 19:00:59 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-434</guid>
		<description>John,
  Richard Dawkins' assertion of the existence of extra terrastrial intelligences 
  greater than ours is a hypothesis, nothing more or less, based on the fact that
  life has got going here and the probability that similarly life friendly worlds 
  must exist throughout the universe. It is a fun thing to speculate about, as a 
  century worth of sci fi novels and films testify.

  We know from our experience of the Earth that organic life in this universe is    
  possible so taking the step of proposing that it has arisen elsewhere is a lot    
  more rational than invoking the existence of some mythical sky fairy.

  If you remain skeptical, simply consider the likelihood that a being more         
  intelligent that George Dubya Bush has evolved on a world far, far, away and   
  that the creature is capable of pronouncing the word "nuclear" correctly. Not
  too hard to believe, is it?</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>John,<br />
  Richard Dawkins&#8217; assertion of the existence of extra terrastrial intelligences<br />
  greater than ours is a hypothesis, nothing more or less, based on the fact that<br />
  life has got going here and the probability that similarly life friendly worlds<br />
  must exist throughout the universe. It is a fun thing to speculate about, as a<br />
  century worth of sci fi novels and films testify.</p>
<p>  We know from our experience of the Earth that organic life in this universe is<br />
  possible so taking the step of proposing that it has arisen elsewhere is a lot<br />
  more rational than invoking the existence of some mythical sky fairy.</p>
<p>  If you remain skeptical, simply consider the likelihood that a being more<br />
  intelligent that George Dubya Bush has evolved on a world far, far, away and<br />
  that the creature is capable of pronouncing the word &#8220;nuclear&#8221; correctly. Not<br />
  too hard to believe, is it?</p>
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		<title>By: John Scott</title>
		<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-433</link>
		<dc:creator>John Scott</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Thu, 17 Jan 2008 14:46:40 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-433</guid>
		<description>Hi Dave, 

Long, six hour drive from Osaka to Tokyo. I'm pooped. Going to bed. Will respond tomorrow. :)</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Hi Dave, </p>
<p>Long, six hour drive from Osaka to Tokyo. I&#8217;m pooped. Going to bed. Will respond tomorrow. <img src='http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/wp-includes/images/smilies/icon_smile.gif' alt=':)' class='wp-smiley' /></p>
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		<title>By: dave walker</title>
		<link>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-430</link>
		<dc:creator>dave walker</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Wed, 16 Jan 2008 12:50:06 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid>http://www.individualsovereigntist.com/2008/01/09/atheism-and-the-burden-of-proof/#comment-430</guid>
		<description>Kerrin,
  Awaiting evidence in this case means open to new information if and when it   
  appears. No claims, hence no burden of proof.

  John,
  I was using the google dictionary on the 'puter, as used by famous folk down 
  the ages. It gave the definition of atheism as "lack of belief in gods". I've got
  an old oxford pocket dictionary that gives the def, "disbelief in gods", which 
  looks equally usable. To go beyond that and say that no gods exist in the 
  universe for a fact is presumptious. Even Richard Dawkins calls a chapter of 
  his tome, "why there is almost certainly no god" The "almost" indicates an 
  openness to new information if and when it turns up.
      
  "Metaphysical universe". Sounds deep.

  The  aggressive ridiculing of theists is frequently deserved, especially when
  the beliefs are used as an even more aggressive weapon against women,
  gays, skyscrapers or science. Atheists don't blow people up in the name of 
  atheism or try to get anti scientific creationist nonsense taught in school
  science lessons. A bit of ridicule is the least that such people deserve.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Kerrin,<br />
  Awaiting evidence in this case means open to new information if and when it<br />
  appears. No claims, hence no burden of proof.</p>
<p>  John,<br />
  I was using the google dictionary on the &#8216;puter, as used by famous folk down<br />
  the ages. It gave the definition of atheism as &#8220;lack of belief in gods&#8221;. I&#8217;ve got<br />
  an old oxford pocket dictionary that gives the def, &#8220;disbelief in gods&#8221;, which<br />
  looks equally usable. To go beyond that and say that no gods exist in the<br />
  universe for a fact is presumptious. Even Richard Dawkins calls a chapter of<br />
  his tome, &#8220;why there is almost certainly no god&#8221; The &#8220;almost&#8221; indicates an<br />
  openness to new information if and when it turns up.</p>
<p>  &#8220;Metaphysical universe&#8221;. Sounds deep.</p>
<p>  The  aggressive ridiculing of theists is frequently deserved, especially when<br />
  the beliefs are used as an even more aggressive weapon against women,<br />
  gays, skyscrapers or science. Atheists don&#8217;t blow people up in the name of<br />
  atheism or try to get anti scientific creationist nonsense taught in school<br />
  science lessons. A bit of ridicule is the least that such people deserve.</p>
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